abstract, writing, in APA style, A-18, A-20
academic argument, defining, 5
accuracy
of evidence, evaluating sources for, 261
of Internet sources, 302
of print and electronic sources, 292
active reading, 62–73
annotating while, 70–73
close reading while, 63
highlighting while, 67–70
previewing while, 62
of visual arguments, 84–91
ad hominem fallacy, 149
advertisements, citing in MLA style, 350
after this, therefore because of this fallacy, 156–57
afterword of book, citing in MLA style, 354
all, avoiding use of, 140
allusion, 111
always, avoiding use of, 140
American Psychological Association documentation. See APA documentation
analogies
analysis of literature, writing, A-1
and, correct use of, 271, 604
angry exchange, definition of argument and, 4, 5
annotating
antecedents, pronoun agreement with, 278
anthology, citing in MLA style, 347, 353
antithesis of thesis statement, 25
anxiety, oral arguments and, 211–12
APA documentation, A-13–A-25
Apartheid laws, ethics versus law and, 594
appeal
to authority. See ethos
to doubtful authority, fallacy of, 154–55
to emotions. See pathos
to logic/reason. See logos
applied ethics, definition of, 590
argument, 3–21. See also argumentative essay
defining, 4–7
logos, pathos, ethos and, 14–18
in real life, 7–8
recognizing, 3–4
rhetorical situation and, 9–14
winning and losing, 8–9
argumentative essay, 253–84. See also argument
choosing topic for, 254–55
drafting, 270–73
establishing credibility in, 267–70
example of, 280–84
four pillars/elements of, 23–27. See also concluding statement; evidence; refutation of opposing arguments; thesis statement
gathering evidence for, 260–63
polishing, 277–79
purpose for writing and, 259–60
readings for, 28–54, 56
refuting opposing arguments in, 263–64
revising, 273–77
structuring of, 265–67
template for, 55
thesis statement for, drafting of, 258–59
thesis statement for, revising of, 264–65
thinking about chosen topic for, 256–58
understanding audience for, 259–60
argumentative strategies, combining in single essay, 637–42
argumentative thesis. See also thesis statement
argument by analogy, 263
Aristotle
on ethos, 17
on logos, 14–15
on pathos, 16
on persuasion, 14
articles. See journal articles; magazine articles; newspaper articles; periodical articles
Art of Rhetoric, The (Aristotle), 14–15, 16, 17
audience
answering questions from, 214
for argumentative essay, 259–60
considering, rhetorical situation and, 10–13
making eye contact with, 212
for oral arguments, 207
rhetorical analysis and, 105–6
of websites, 306
audiovisual sources, citing in MLA style, 354–55
authority
appeal to. See ethos
doubtful, appeal to, 154–55
of Internet sources, 306–7
of print and electronic sources, 295
authors
considering, rhetorical situation and, 9–10
in parenthetical references, in APA style, A-13–A-14
in parenthetical references, in MLA style, 345–47
in reference list, A-14–A-15
rhetorical analysis and, 102–4
using full name versus last name of, A-4
in works-cited list, 347–59. See also works-cited list
background information, in argumentative essay, 265
backing, in Toulmin arguments, 201, 202
bandwagon fallacy, 158–60
begging the question, 147
bias
appeal to doubtful authority and, 155
of author, 9–10, 269
confirmation, 305
critical reading and, 61
detecting in sources, 261–62
in evaluation arguments, 519
objectivity of Internet sources and, 303–5
objectivity of print and electronic sources and, 294
blog posts/comments, citing in MLA style, 357
body copy, 84
body of essay
argumentative essay structure and, 265, 270
elements of argument and, 24
body of paper, in APA style, A-18, A-21–A-24
book chapter/section, citing in MLA style, 354
Book Review Digest, 292–94
books
online, citing in APA style, A-17
online, citing in MLA style, 358
print, citing in APA style, A-15–A-16
print, citing in MLA style, 350–54
brackets, when adding or changing words in quotations, 340
brainstorming, about topic choice, 256
broad definitions, avoiding, 419–20
bumper stickers
but, correct use of, 271, 604
cartoons, citing in MLA style, 350
causal chains, 472–74
cause-and-effect arguments, 467–515
cause-and-effect relationships and, 471–74
choosing as writing strategy, 266
definition of, 468
examples of, 474–81
readings for, 483–512
structuring, 475–76
template for writing, 513
understanding, 468–71
chapter of book, citing in MLA style, 354
checklists
for annotating, 71
for critical reading, 78
for essay’s purpose and audience, 273
for essay’s structure and style, 274
for essay’s supporting evidence, 274
for how well argument stands up, 27
for preparing to write rhetorical analysis, 113
for responding to visual arguments, 94–95
for visuals in oral arguments, 209–10
circular definitions, avoiding, 420
circular reasoning, 147–48
citation indexes, 294
claims, in Toulmin arguments, 199–202
close reading, 63
clustering, topic choice and, 256, 257
college libraries, beginning research at, 288–89
comic strips, citing in MLA style, 350
commercial presses, credibility of sources from, 292
commercial sponsors, objectivity of Internet sources and, 304
common ground, establishing
credibility of author and, 268
in Rogerian arguments, 193
common knowledge, source documentation and, 346, 374
comparatives, in evaluation arguments, 526
comprehension clues
comprehensiveness
concluding statement, basics of, 24, 27
conclusion of essay
argumentative essay structure and, 265, 270
elements of argument and, 24
conclusion of syllogism, 125–30
confirmation bias, 305
confrontational arguments, versus Rogerian, 192
context of argument
considering, rhetorical situation and, 13–14
rhetorical analysis and, 106–8
contractions, versus possessive pronouns, 278
contributory causes, 472
coordinating conjunctions, correct use of, 271, 604
coordination, 270–71
credentials, appeal to doubtful authority and, 155
credibility
of author, ethos and, 17–18
establishing in argumentative essay, 267–70
of Internet sources, 302–3
of print and electronic sources, 292–94
crediting sources. See source documentation
criteria for evaluation, evaluation arguments and, 519–21
critical reading, 59–81
annotating while, 70–73
basics of, 61–62
close reading and, 63
critical thinking and, 60–61
highlighting while, 67–70
previewing before, 62
readings for, 64–77
writing critical response to, 77–78
critical response
critical thinking, 60–61. See also critical reading
cultural beliefs, ethical principles and, 592
currency
database articles
databases, online, at college libraries, 289
date of publication, currency of sources and, 295
debatable statements
Declaration of Independence
extended definitions in, 421–22
self-evident ethical principles
in, 592
syllogisms in, 125–26
deductive arguments
structure of, 133
template for, 187
deductive reasoning, 125–37
in argumentative essay, 266
constructing sound syllogisms and, 126–29
enthymemes and, 129–31
readings for, 134–36
in Toulmin arguments, 200
understanding, 125–26
writing arguments with, 133
defining terms, in argumentative essays, 272
definition arguments, 417–65
choosing as writing strategy, 266
developing definitions for, 419–22
examples of, 423–29
readings for, 433–63
structuring, 422
template for writing, 464
understanding, 418–19
definitions, definition argument and, 418–22
dictionary definitions, definition argument and, 420
Digital Object Identifier, A-16–A-17
discovery service of college libraries, 289
distorting evidence, 269
distorting quotations, 341
documentation style, checking, for argumentative essay, 279
documenting sources. See source documentation
DOI (Digital Object Identifier), A-16–A-17
doubtful authority, appeal to, 154–55
drafting, of argumentative essay, 270–73
ed./Ed./eds., in works-cited list, 352–53
edited books
citing in APA style, A-16
citing in MLA style, 347, 352
editing, of argumentative essay, 278
editorials, citing in MLA style, 350
either/or fallacy, 7, 151
electronic/online books and articles
electronic resources, at college libraries, 288–89
ellipses, in quotations, 340
email discussion group messages, citing in MLA style, 358
emotions, appeal to. See pathos
encyclopedia articles, citing in MLA style, 354
encyclopedias, for research, 289
enthymemes, 129–31
equivocation fallacy, 152
essays, citing in APA style, A-16
et al.
in APA documentation, A-14
in MLA documentation, 352
ethical arguments, 589–636
choosing as writing strategy, 266, 267
definition of, 590
ethical dilemmas and, 595–96
ethics versus law and, 592–95
examples of, 598–606
readings for, 609–33
stating ethical principle in, 591–92
structuring, 599
template for writing, 635
understanding, 590–91
ethical dilemmas, understanding, 595–96
ethical principles, stating, 591–92
ethics
ethos
overview of, 14, 17–18
rhetorical analysis and, 108–9
rhetorical triangle and, 19–21
in visual arguments, 85–90
evaluate, definition of, 518
evaluation arguments, 517–49
every, avoiding use of, 140
evidence
basics of, 24, 25–26
gathering, for argumentative essay, 260–63
inductive reasoning and, 140
in literary arguments, A-2–A-3
in oral arguments, 208
in proposal arguments, 555
rhetorical analysis and, 110
examples, for extended definitions, 421–22
exceptions to the rule, inductive reasoning and, 140
expert testimony, appeal to doubtful authority and, 154–55
explication, writing, A-1
extended definitions, definition argument and, 421–22
facts
as evidence, 26
as non-debatable, 6, 255
fairness of author, credibility and, 268–69
false dilemma fallacy, 151
feasibility of proposal arguments, 555–57
feedback, after revising argumentative essay, 275–77
Feuerstein, Aaron, ethics versus law and, 594–95
floodgates fallacy, 153, 154
foot-in-the-door fallacy, 153, 154
for, correct use of, 271, 604
foreword of book, citing in MLA style, 354
formal argument, versus informal,
4–5
formal definition, definition argument and, 420
formal outlines
after drafting essay, 275
before drafting essay, 267
format, checking, for argumentative essay, 279
freewriting, about topic choice, 256
friendly audience, 12
general encyclopedias, for research, 289
generalization
hasty, as logical fallacy, 150
hasty, from polls or survey, 139
sweeping, 150
too broad, 140
general-purpose search engines, 290
general to general inductive reasoning, 138
general to particular inductive reasoning, 138
good versus bad, ethical arguments See ethical arguments
Google Scholar, 290
government documents, online, citing in MLA style, 359
government issues, place of argument in, 7–8
grammar in context
avoiding is where and is when, 425
avoiding the reason is because, 478
comparatives and superlatives, 526
contractions versus possessive pronouns, 278
coordination, 604
parallelism, 272
pronoun-antecedent agreement, 278
subordination, 604
will versus would, 565
grounds, in Toulmin arguments, 199–202
hasty generalization
headnote, rhetorical analysis and, 102
highlighting
hostile audience, 12
hyphens, replacing repeated names with, 347, 352
identifying tags
avoiding plagiarism with, 377–79
for quotations, paraphrases and summaries, 338–39
illogical middle term in syllogism, 127–28
images, as visual arguments. See visual arguments
immediate cause, 472
implied premise, 129–30
inductive arguments
structure of, 144
template for, 188
inductive leap, 139
inductive reasoning, 137–46
in argumentative essays, 266
in Toulmin arguments, 200
inferences
informal argument, versus formal, 4–5
informal outline, of topic idea, 257
instructor feedback, after revising argumentative essay, 275
insufficient evidence, inductive reasoning and, 140
intentional plagiarism, 373
Internet source evaluation, 301–27
Internet sources
citing in APA style, A-16–A-17
citing in MLA style, 355–59
evaluation of, 301–27. See also Internet source evaluation
finding, 290
plagiarism and, 372
in-text citations
introduction of book, citing in MLA style, 354
introduction of essay
argumentative essay structure and, 265, 270
elements of argument and, 24
invalid syllogisms, 126–29
invention strategies, to think about topic, 256–58
irrelevant evidence, inductive reasoning and, 140
is where/is when, avoiding, 425
italicizing titles
in APA documentation, A-14
in literary arguments, A-3
in MLA documentation, 347, 350–59
it does not follow fallacy, 157–58
items in series, parallelism for, 272
Jefferson, Thomas
extended definitions by, 421–22
self-evident ethical principles by, 592
syllogisms by, 125–26
Jim Crow laws, ethics versus law and, 594
journal articles
online, citing in APA style, A-16–A-17
online, citing in MLA style, 358
print, citing in APA style, A-15
print, citing in MLA style, 348, 349
journals, credibility of sources from, 292
jumping to conclusions, 150
Kael, Pauline, 150
King Jr., Martin Luther, “Letter from Birmingham Jail.” See “Letter from Birmingham Jail” (King Jr.)
law, versus ethics, 592–95
legal cases, online, citing in MLA style, 359
legal versus illegal, ethical principles and, 592–95
lesser of two evils, ethical dilemmas and, 596
“Letter from Birmingham Jail” (King Jr.) analyzing rhetorical situation of, 103–8
assessment of argument in, 112
ethics versus law and, 592–93
means of persuasion in, 108–9
overview of, 100
rhetorical strategies used in, 109–12
letters to the editor, citing in MLA style, 350
libraries, beginning research at, 288–89
lifeboat dilemma, 595
literary arguments, A-1–A-11
argumentative thesis for, A-2
choosing evidence for, A-2–A-3
literary criticism, as evidence, A-3
literary critics, using full name versus last name of, A-4
logic, 123–89
appeal to. See logos
deductive reasoning and, 125–37. See also deductive reasoning
fallacies of, 147–63. See also logical fallacies
importance of, 124–25
inductive reasoning and, 137–46, 188
readings for analysis of, 164–86
writing templates and, 187–88
logical fallacies, 147–63
ad hominem as, 149
after this, therefore because of this fallacy as, 156–57
appeal to doubtful authority as, 154–55
bandwagon fallacy as, 158–60
begging the question as, 147
circular reasoning as, 147–48
either/or fallacy as, 151
equivocation as, 152
false dilemma as, 151
hasty generalization as, 150
it does not follow fallacy as, 157–58
jumping to conclusion as, 150
misuse of statistics as, 155–56
non sequitur as, 157–58
personal attack as, 149
post hoc, ergo propter hoc as, 156–57
readings for identifying, 161–63
red herring as, 152–53
slippery slope as, 153, 154
straw man as, 149–50
sweeping generalization as, 150
tu quoque as, 154
weak analogy as, 148
you also fallacy as, 154
logos
overview of, 14–16
rhetorical analysis and, 108
rhetorical triangle and, 19–21
in visual arguments, 85–90
losing and winning arguments, 8–9
magazine articles
online, citing in MLA style, 358
print, citing in APA style, A-15
print, citing in MLA style, 348
magazines, credibility of sources from, 292
main cause, in cause-and-effect arguments, 472
major premise, of syllogism, 125–30
Malden Mills, ethics versus law and, 594–95
manuscript format
metaphors, 111
metasearch engines, 290
middle term in syllogism, illogical, 127–28
minor premise, of syllogism, 125–30
MLA documentation, 345–67
example of paper written with, 361–67
paper guidelines for, 360
parenthetical references for, 345–47
works-cited list for, 347–59. See also works-cited list
Modern Language Association documentation. See MLA documentation
moral law, ethical principles and, 591–92
multivolume work, citing in MLA style, 354
narrow definitions, avoiding, 419
Nazi Germany, ethics versus law and, 593, 594
negative evaluation arguments, 520–21
negative premise, of syllogism, 128–29
nervousness, oral arguments and, 210–11
neutral audience, 12
neutral term use, in Rogerian arguments, 194
newspaper articles
online, citing in MLA style, 358
print, citing in APA style, A-15
print, citing in MLA style, 350
New York Times Book Review, 294
non sequitur fallacy, 157–58
nor, correct use of, 271, 604
notes, speaking, 208
Nuremberg laws, ethics versus law and, 594
objectivity
of Internet sources, 303–5
of print and electronic sources, 294
online catalog at college libraries, 289
online databases, using, 289
online/electronic books and articles
online video/video blog posts
operational definitions, 422
opinions, as evidence, 26
opposing arguments, refuting. See refutation of opposing arguments
or, correct use of, 271, 604
oral arguments, 206–20
organization of essay
cause-and-effect arguments and, 476
rhetorical analysis and, 109–10
outline
formal, of essay, 267, 275
informal, of topic idea, 257
page formatting. See paper formatting
page numbers, abbreviating, in works-cited list, 347
paired items, parallelism for, 272
paper formatting
APA style for, A-18
MLA style for, 360
parallelism
in argumentative essays, 272
as rhetorical strategy, 111
paraphrases
avoiding plagiarism in, 379
identifying tags for, 339
writing, 332–34
parenthetical references
parenthetical references (Continued)
particular to general inductive reasoning, 138
particular to particular inductive reasoning, 138
past tense, in literary arguments, A-3
pathos
overview of, 14, 16–17
rhetorical analysis and, 108
rhetorical triangle and, 19–21
in visual arguments, 85–90
peer review
after revising argumentative essay, 275–77
credibility of sources with, 292
periodical articles
online, citing in APA style, A-16–A-17
online, citing in MLA style, 358
print, citing in APA style, A-15
print, citing in MLA style, 347–50
personal attack fallacy, 149
personal preference/taste, as undebatable, 6
persuasion
plagiarism
avoiding with identifying tags, 338–39
avoiding with quotation marks, 330, 335
definition of, 370
intentional, 373
MLA documentation See MLA documentation
in oral arguments, 208
revising to eliminate, 376–79
understanding, 370–74
unintentional, common causes of, 371–73
when paraphrasing, 333
when summarizing, 330–31
podcasts, citing in MLA style, 357
political cartoons, citing in MLA style, 350
political issues, place of argument in, 7–8
political sponsors, objectivity of Internet sources and, 304
polls, making inferences from, 139
positive evaluation arguments, 520–21
possessive pronouns, versus contractions, 278
post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy
practicing oral arguments, 209
preconceptions of author, 9–10
preface of book, citing in MLA style, 354
premises, in deductive reasoning, 125–30
presentations. See oral arguments
presentation slides
presentation software, for oral arguments, 209
present tense, in literary arguments, A-3
previewing before reading, 62
print resources, at college libraries, 288–89
problem solving, 553. See also proposal arguments
pronoun-antecedent agreement, 278
pronouns, possessive, versus contractions, 278
proofreading, 278
propaganda, definition of argument and, 4
proposal arguments, 551–87
choosing as writing strategy, 266, 267
demonstrating solution works in, 555
discussing benefits of solution in, 557
establishing feasibility of solution in, 555–57
examples of, 559–67
proposing solution in, 555
readings for, 559–84
refuting opposing arguments in, 557
stating problem in, 554
structuring, 561
template for writing, 586
understanding, 552
publication date, currency of sources and, 295
publication medium, in works-cited list, 347
publisher, shortening, in works-cited list, 347
purpose for writing
of argumentative essay, 259–60
considering, rhetorical situation and, 10
rhetorical analysis and, 104
qtd. in., 346
qualifiers, in Toulmin arguments, 201, 202
quarrel, definition of argument and, 4, 5
question addressed by argument
considering, rhetorical situation and, 13
rhetorical analysis and, 106
questions from audience, answering, 213
quotation marks
avoiding plagiarism with, 377–79
in parenthetical references, 346
for titles, in literary arguments, A-3
for titles, in reference list, A-14
for titles, in works-cited list, 347, 348–50, 353–59
when copying direct from source, 372
when quoting sources, 335
quotations
familiar, source documentation and, 374
identifying tags for, 339
indented, in APA documentation, A-14
indented, in literary arguments, A-4
indented, in MLA documentation, 346–47
in parenthetical references, 346
using, 335–36
working into sentences, 340–41
quoting out of context, 269, 335
reading critically. See critical reading
reason, appeal to. See logos
reasonable tone of author, credibility and, 268
reason for writing. See purpose for writing
reasoning
circular, 147–48
deductive, 125–37. See also deductive reasoning
inductive, 137–46. See also inductive reasoning
reason is because, the, avoiding, 478
rebuttals, in Toulmin arguments, 201, 202
red herring fallacy, 152–53
reference list
reference work articles, citing in MLA style, 354
reference works, research at college libraries and, 289
refutation of opposing arguments
in argumentative essay, 263–64
basics of, 24, 26–27
in proposal arguments, 557
rehearsing oral arguments, 209
relevant evidence, evaluating sources for, 261
religion
doctrines of, ethical principles and, 592
as subject for argument, 6
remote causes, 472
repetition
representative evidence
evaluating sources for, 261
inductive reasoning and, 140
research, finding sources through, 288–90
resources. See sources
response, to literature, writing, A-1
reviews, citing in MLA style, 350
revised editions
revising
of argumentative essay, 273–77
to eliminate plagiarism, 376–79
rhetoric, definition of, 9
rhetorical analysis, 99–121
assessing argument and, 112–13
definition of, 100
example of, 113–17
means of persuasion and, 108–9
readings for, 117–21
rhetorical situation and, 101–8
rhetorical strategies and, 109–12
rhetorical questions, 112
rhetorical situation
rhetorical strategies, rhetorical analysis and, 109–12
rhetorical triangle, 19–21
right versus wrong, ethical arguments. See ethical arguments
Rogerian argument
Rogers, Carl, 192
scholarly journal articles. See journal articles
scholarly journals, credibility of sources from, 292
scientific method, as inductive reasoning, 138–39
search engines, finding Internet sources with, 290
segregation laws, ethics versus law and, 592–93, 594
self-evident ethical principles, 592
series of items, parallelism for, 272
should/should not, in thesis statement, 259
signal phrases, for quotations, paraphrases, and summaries, 338–39
similes, 110–11
skeptical audiences
slanted language/evidence
slides
slippery slope fallacy, 153, 154
so, correct use of, 271, 604
solutions, in proposal arguments. See proposal arguments
Sophie’s Choice (Styron), ethical dilemma in, 596
sound syllogisms, 126–29
source documentation
in APA style, A-13–A-25. See also APA documentation
in MLA style, 245–67. See also MLA documentation
in oral arguments, 208
types of materials needing, 373–74
when paraphrasing, 379
when quoting, 372, 377–79
when summarizing, 330–31
source evaluation, 290–327
basics of, 290–92
of print and electronic sources, 292–301
of websites, 301–27. See also Internet source evaluation
sources
detecting bias in, 261–62
documenting. See source documentation
evaluating. See source evaluation
evaluating evidence in, 261
finding, 288–90
material from, working into argument, 338–41
paraphrasing, 332–34
plagiarism of. See plagiarism
quoting, 335–36
summarizing, 329–32
synthesizing, 341–43
speaking notes, 208
special encyclopedias, for research, 289
special-interest sponsors, objectivity of Internet sources and, 304
specialized reference works, for research, 289
specialized search engines, 290
speeches. See oral arguments
spin, definition of argument and, 4
statements of fact, as undebatable, 6
statistics
straw man fallacy
structure
of argumentative essays, 265–67
of cause-and-effect arguments, 475–76
of definition arguments, 422
of ethical arguments, 599
of evaluation arguments, 521–22
of proposal arguments, 561
stylistic techniques, rhetorical analysis and, 110–12
Styron, William, Sophie’s Choice, ethical dilemma in, 596