CHAPTER 21 Since Harvard College was founded in 1636, American higher education has reflected the history of the United States—economically, socially, and culturally. In the early days of the country, a college education was a privilege for the elite few. The nineteenth century—a period of economic expansion—saw the development of the state university system, which educated many engineers, teachers, agricultural experts, and other professionals who participated in the country’s industrial boom. After World War I, the City College of New York provided a free, quality college education to many working-class students, including immigrants, at a time when they were effectively barred from other colleges. However, the most significant expansion in American higher education occurred after World War II, when the GI Bill gave returning veterans money for tuition and living expenses so they could attend college. Enrollment skyrocketed, and many people credit the GI Bill for helping to create postwar prosperity and a large middle class.
In the decades since the first GI Bill was passed, the number of colleges and universities in the United States has increased steadily: as of 2012, there were over 4,700 degree-granting institutions in the United States. Nearly 40 percent of Americans now have at least a two-year college degree, and roughly two thirds of high school graduates enroll in college after graduation. Statistics show that college graduates earn an average of about $17,500 more annually than those who have only a high school diploma. This financial reality, along with the need for a highly educated and competitive workforce in an increasingly global marketplace, has led some to argue that the federal government should do more than it already does to make sure that more—and perhaps even all—Americans attend college. Such proposals raise fundamental questions about higher education. How should colleges maintain academic standards even as they admit
The following four essays address these and other questions, exploring the importance of a college degree and suggesting new ways of viewing post-secondary education. In “College’s Value Goes Deeper Than the Degree,” Eric Hoover argues that a college education offers many tangible and intangible benefits. In “When a Two-Year College Degree Pays Off,” Liz Weston argues that contrary to popular belief, a two-year degree is not inferior to a four-year degree and can, in many instances, lead to a high-paying career. In “What’s Wrong with Vocational School?” Charles Murray argues that too many people are going to college and that some should consider vocational school as a viable alternative. Finally, in “Is College for Everyone?” Pharinet makes the point that as a society, we should accept the fact that certain people simply should not attend college.
ERIC HOOVER College’s Value Goes Deeper Than the Degree Scholastic skepticism is contagious. Pundits and parents alike continue to second-guess the value of a college degree. After all, the recession has changed the way many Americans look at big-ticket purchases; plenty of families worry that today’s expenses will not pay off tomorrow.1
Not surprisingly, today’s cost-conscious public views college price tags with a wary eye. According to the Pew Research Center survey of the American public, only 35 percent said colleges were doing a “good” job in terms of providing value to students and parents; 42 percent said “only fair,” and 15 percent said “poor.”2
A curious thing happened when college gradu ates were asked about the value of their own degrees, however. In the Pew survey, 84 percent of those with degrees said college had been a good investment; only 7 percent said it had not.3
Why? Perhaps it’s because assessing the value of a college education is not a hard-and-fast calculation. Sure, diplomas help Americans land better jobs and earn higher salaries, and one can estimate the financial return on those investments. Yet the perceived benefits of attending college go well beyond dollars.4
In the Pew survey, all respondents were asked about the “main purpose” of college. Forty-seven percent said “to teach knowledge and skills that can be 5
These findings echo the words graduates often use to describe the benefits of their college experi ences. Typically, those benefits are intangible, immeasurable, and untethered to narrow questions about what a particular degree “got” them.6
Evan Bloom’s diploma will tell you only so much about him. As an undergraduate at the University of California at Berkeley, Mr. Bloom considered several majors. He wanted to take hands-on courses that would require creative thinking. Finally, he settled on architecture.7
After graduating, in 2007, Mr. Bloom worked in construction management for a few years, but life inside a cubicle bored him. Recently, he decided to pursue a passion for which he has no credentials: cooking.8
Mr. Bloom, 25, is the co-founder of Wise Sons Jewish Delicatessen, a catering business in San Francisco. The venture, which serves the public out of rented space once a week, has yet to become a full-time, brick-and-mortar business. That’s likely to change as soon as investors come aboard.9
Mr. Bloom believes his out-of-classroom experiences prepared him to become a restaurateur. At Berkeley he was active in the student government, honing his networking skills. As a member of the university’s Hillel chapter, he and a friend, Leo Beckerman, cooked weekly meals for groups of 250. The experience inspired them to start Wise Sons together.10
More than once, Mr. Bloom has thought about the power of connections made in college. An alumnus of his fraternity helped him get an internship with the contractor for whom he later worked. And had he not met Mr. Beckerman at a bar one night years ago, he might still be doing something he enjoys less than making pastrami and rye bread.11
“My classes were great, but it was really everything else I was doing that mattered the most,” Mr. Bloom said. “It was tapping into this whole sphere of influences.”12
“Basic, Fundamental Training”
The way her life unfolded, Vanessa Mera didn’t end up needing her bachelor’s degrees in psychology and economics. After graduating from the University of Miami in 2001, she and her sister took over their parents’ import-export-distribution business, called VZ Solutions Inc., in Miami.13
Still, Ms. Mera, 31, says her time in college was crucial. As a freshman, she had expected to major in biology and go on to medical school. Over time, she realized that she didn’t want to become a doctor. “In college, you come in thinking one thing about yourself,” she said, “and you leave thinking in a completely different way.”14
Ms. Mera, who had attended a private all-girls high school, believes that interacting with people of different backgrounds helped her overcome her shyness. So, too, did the time she spent studying in Spain.15
Surrounded by many high-achieving students at Miami, Ms. Mera developed a competitive streak. If you want to land a good internship, she learned, you must put yourself out there.16
17
Jane Knecht can relate. She enrolled at the University of Virginia in the late 1970s, unsure of what she wanted to study. She signed up for an introductory rhetoric course. “I didn’t even know what the word meant,” she said.18
Soon, Ms. Knecht couldn’t get enough. In a course on rhetoric and social theory, she recalled, a professor gave students three unrelated pieces of writing and told them to synthesize an argument that tied them all together. At first, she froze up, worried that she couldn’t do it. Then the writing flowed.19
As Ms. Knecht practiced public speaking and wrote a mountain of papers, her self-confidence soared: “It was basic, fundamental training.”20
Ms. Knecht graduated in 1982 with a degree in speech communications. She had planned to go to law school, but instead spent seven years at home with her two children before entering the work force. At 52, she’s now director of business development at the Water Environment Research Foundation, in Alexandria, Virginia.21
Without a bachelor’s degree, Ms. Knecht figures, she wouldn’t have been considered for the job. Many of her colleagues have master’s degrees or Ph.D.’s. Moreover, she believes college prepared her for day-to-day challenges.22
“Everything in my job is relationship-based,” said Ms. Knecht, who on a recent after noon was preparing to run a conference call with business associates in Australia, followed by a board meeting. “My classes helped me recognize the importance of listening and effective negotiating, and how to go into new situations, which I do all the time.”23
Billy Ray, 59, described his degree as a door that led him to prosperity. His parents were poor, as were most of his childhood friends. “We were on the bottom rung,” he said. “I didn’t like where I was, and I wanted to change that.”24
When Mr. Ray enrolled at Stephen F. Austin State University in 1970, he found himself surrounded by people with fatter wallets and high aspirations. This inspired him. “I was associating with a different level of people,” he said. He put himself through college by working for a construction company during the summers.25
Mr. Ray says the contacts he made in college were just as crucial as the courses he took. After graduating with a degree in business administration, Mr. Ray went to work for the construction company as a licensed plumber. Later, a good friend from Stephen F. Austin offered him a job selling trucks at a dealership. “I went from making good money to really good money,” he said.26
Mr. Ray, who lives in Lufkin, Texas, is now a regional manager for De Lage Landen, a financial-services company. He and his wife, Alys, own a 3,000-square-foot house, and they recently purchased a second home, in Austin, where both of their sons graduated from the University of Texas.27
Having written all those tuition checks, Mr. Ray understands why some people question the value of college. “You’re losing four years of work time and thousands of dollars,” he said. “Do you ever get it back?”28
Still, Mr. Ray, the only one of three brothers to finish college, said he would have a much lower-paying job without a bachelor’s degree (his current position requires one). And the value of going to college, he believes, is only increasing. “If they don’t get that degree,” he said, “they’re going nowhere.”29
READING ARGUMENTS
In your own words, paraphrase Hoover’s thesis.
Where does Hoover state his thesis? Why does he wait so long to do so? What information does he present before he states it? Why?
What is the relationship between paragraphs 6 and 7? What transition is Hoover making at this point in the essay?
Hoover supports his thesis with several anecdotal examples. What point do these examples make? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this kind of evidence? What other types of evidence could Hoover have included?
In what respects is this essay an evaluation argument?
LIZ WESTON When a Two-Year College Degree Pays Off
Steven Polasck of Corpus Christi, Texas, liked math and science in high school. He considered attending a four-year college but ultimately decided to use his strengths to get a two-year degree in instrumentation from Texas State Technical College. He has not looked back.1
“I went to work on the Monday after graduation,” said Polasck, 27, who monitors and fixes systems at a Valero Energy Corp refinery. “The first year I made almost $80,000.”2
3
Making more students and parents aware of these better-paying options could help ease the college affordability crisis, which has so far led to more than $1 trillion in student loan debt.4
The average net annual cost of a community college education—for tuition, fees, room and board, minus financial aid—is just under $6,000, according to the College Board. The average undergraduate at a four-year public college pays twice that amount out of pocket, and most students attending a public school now take five or more years to complete their degrees.5
The fact that people still think a bachelor’s degree is always the better option is probably due to popular charts that hang in many high school guidance counselor offices, said Michael Bettersworth, vice chancellor and chief policy officer for Texas State Technical College, which has nearly 30,000 enrolled students.6
The “chart” is a graphic representation of earnings by educational attainment, using Bureau of Labor Statistics data showing professional degrees at the top, bachelor’s degrees in the middle, and associate’s degrees just above high school diplomas.7
Median weekly earnings for those with bachelor’s degrees last year reached $1,101, or $57,252 a year, compared to $792, or $41,184 annually, for those with an associate’s degree, according to BLS.8
But the chart fails to capture the full range of salaries earned by those with two-year degrees, particularly those in technical fields, Bettersworth said.9
“It’s far more important what you study than how much you study,” he said.10
While the average starting salary for somebody with a bachelor’s degree in Texas is around $40,000 per year, many technical associate’s degrees offer first-year pay of more than $70,000, according to College Measures, which tracks earnings and other outcomes for higher education.11
Some well-paying jobs require less than two years of study. A line worker certification, a requisite for working on electrical power lines, takes about a year and brings an average starting salary of $70,000, Bettersworth said.12
Texas is one of the states that has been gathering income data as a way to gauge and improve the success of its public college graduates. Other states conducting similar studies include Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Tennessee, and Virginia.13
The earnings advantage of some two-year degrees can persist throughout a worker’s lifetime. More than one in four people with associate’s degrees end up making more than the average of somebody with a bachelor’s degree, according to a 2011 report by Georgetown University’s Center on Education and the Workplace.14
15
Other jobs with strong growth and above-average pay that require two-year degrees are funeral service managers ($66,720), web developers ($62,500), electrical and electronics drafters ($55,700), nuclear technicians ($69,060), radiation therapists ($77,560), respiratory therapists ($55,870), registered nurses ($65,470), cardiovascular technologists and technicians ($52,070), radiologic technologists ($54,620), and magnetic resonance imaging technologists ($65,360).16
Polasck said it is not unusual for experienced people with his type of degree to make up to $150,000 a year with “reasonable” amounts of overtime. Job prospects are good even with declining oil prices, since refineries produce gas and other byproducts regardless of prevailing prices.17
“If I can go to this school for two years, and not be in much debt at all at the end, and be making pretty good money to start, why wouldn’t I do that?” Polasck said. “It’s common sense.”18
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©2015. Time Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted/Translated from TIME magazine and published with permission of Time Inc. Reproduction in any manner in any language in whole or in part without written permission is prohibited.
READING ARGUMENTS
How does this essay challenge widely held assumptions about college degrees? At what points in the essay does Weston specifically address these assumptions?
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, four of the fastest-growing job categories require associate degrees. What are these jobs? What do they have in common?
Weston quotes Michael Bettersworth, an administrator at a technical college that grants two-year degrees. Is he an objective source? Is he credible? Explain.
Weston includes a number of statistics to support her thesis. Where did she get these statistics? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this kind of evidence?
This essay begins by referring to Steven Polasck, a student who decided to attend a two-year school rather than a four-year school. It ends with a quotation from the same student. How effective is this strategy? What other options did Weston have for opening and closing her essay? What are the advantages and disadvantages of these alternatives?
CHARLES MURRAY WHAT’S WRONG WITH VOCATIONAL SCHOOL? The topic yesterday was education and children in the lower half of the intelligence distribution. Today I turn to the upper half, people with IQs of 100 or higher. Today’s simple truth is that far too many of them are going to four-year colleges.1
Begin with those barely into the top half, those with average intelligence. To have an IQ of 100 means that a tough high-school course pushes you about as far as your academic talents will take you. If you are average in math ability, you may struggle with algebra and probably fail a calculus course. If you are average in verbal skills, you often misinterpret complex text and make errors in logic.2
These are not devastating shortcomings. You are smart enough to engage in any of hundreds of occupations. You can acquire more knowledge if it is presented in a format commensurate with your intellectual skills. But a genuine college education in the arts and sciences begins where your skills leave off.3
In engineering and most of the natural sciences, the demarcation between high-school material and college-level material is brutally obvious. If you cannot handle the math, you cannot pass the courses. In the humanities and social sciences, the demarcation is fuzzier. It is possible for someone with an IQ of 100 to sit in the lectures of Economics 1, read the textbook, and write answers in an examination book. But students who cannot follow complex arguments accurately are not really learning economics. They are taking away a mishmash of half-understood information and outright misunderstandings that probably leave them under the illusion that they know something they do not. (A depressing research literature documents one’s inability to recognize one’s own incompetence.) Traditionally and properly understood, a four-year college education teaches advanced analytic skills and information at a level that exceeds the intellectual capacity of most people.4
There is no magic point at which a genuine-college-level education becomes an option, but anything below an IQ of 110 is problematic. If you want to do well, you should have an IQ of 115 or higher. Put another way, it makes sense for only about 15 percent of the population, 25 percent if one stretches it, to get a college education. And yet more than 45 percent of recent high school graduates enroll in four-year colleges. Adjust that percentage to account for high-school dropouts, and more than 40 percent of all persons in their late teens are trying to go to a four-year college—enough people to absorb everyone down through an IQ of 104.5
6
Large numbers of those who are intellectually qualified for college also do not yearn for four years of college-level courses. They go to college because their parents are paying for it and college is what children of their social class are supposed to do after they finish high school. They may have the ability to understand the material in Economics 1 but they do not want to. They, too, need to learn to make a living—and would do better in vocational training.7
Combine those who are unqualified with those who are qualified but not interested, and some large proportion of students on today’s college campuses—probably a majority of them—are looking for something that the four-year college was not designed to provide. Once there, they create a demand for practical courses, taught at an intellectual level that can be handled by someone with a mildly above-average IQ and/or mild motivation. The nation’s colleges try to accommodate these new demands. But most of the practical specialties do not really require four years of training, and the best way to teach those specialties is not through a residential institution with the staff and infrastructure of a college. It amounts to a system that tries to turn out televisions on an assembly line that also makes pottery. It can be done, but it’s ridiculously inefficient.8
Government policy contributes to the problem by making college scholarships and loans too easy to get, but its role is ancillary. The demand for college is market-driven, because a college degree does, in fact, open up access to jobs that are closed to people without one. The fault lies in the false premium that our culture has put on a college degree.9
For a few occupations, a college degree still certifies a qualification. For example, employers appropriately treat a bachelor’s degree in engineering as a requirement for hiring engineers. But a bachelor’s degree in a field such as sociology, psychology, economics, history, or literature certifies nothing. It is a screening device for employers. The college you got into says a lot about your ability, and that you stuck it out for four years says something about your perseverance. But the degree itself does not qualify the graduate for anything. There are better, faster, and more efficient ways for young people to acquire credentials to provide to employers.10
The good news is that market-driven systems eventually adapt to reality, and signs of change are visible. One glimpse of the future is offered by the 11
Advances in technology are making the brick-and-mortar facility increasingly irrelevant. Research resources on the Internet will soon make the college library unnecessary. Lecture courses taught by first-rate professors are already available on CDs and DVDs for many subjects, and online methods to make courses interactive between professors and students are evolving. Advances in computer simulation are expanding the technical skills that can be taught without having to gather students together in a laboratory or shop. These and other developments are all still near the bottom of steep growth curves. The cost of effective training will fall for everyone who is willing to give up the trappings of a campus. As the cost of college continues to rise, the choice to give up those trappings will become easier.12
A reality about the job market must eventually begin to affect the valuation of a college education: The spread of wealth at the top of American society has created an explosive increase in the demand for craftsmen. Finding a good lawyer or physician is easy. Finding a good carpenter, painter, electrician, plumber, glazier, mason—the list goes on and on—is difficult, and it is a seller’s market. Journeymen craftsmen routinely make incomes in the top half of the income distribution while master craftsmen can make six figures. They have work even in a soft economy. Their jobs cannot be outsourced to India. And the craftsman’s job provides wonderful intrinsic rewards that come from mastery of a challenging skill that produces tangible results. How many white-collar jobs provide nearly as much satisfaction?13
Even if forgoing college becomes economically attractive, the social cachet of a college degree remains. That will erode only when large numbers of high-status, high-income people do not have a college degree and don’t care. The information technology industry is in the process of creating that class, with Bill Gates and Steve Jobs as exemplars. It will expand for the most natural of reasons: A college education need be no more important for many high-tech occupations than it is for NBA basketball players or cabinet makers. Walk into Microsoft or Google with evidence that you are a brilliant hacker, and the job interviewer is not going to fret if you lack a college transcript. The ability to present an employer with evidence that you are good at something, without benefit of a college degree, will continue to increase, and so will the number of skills to which that evidence can be attached. Every time that happens, the false premium attached to the college degree will diminish.14
Most students find college life to be lots of fun (apart from the boring classroom stuff), and that alone will keep the four-year institution overstocked for a long time. But, rightly understood, college is appropriate for 15
Reading Arguments
Construct a syllogism for the deductive argument Murray uses in his opening paragraphs. Do you find this argument persuasive? Why or why not?
Murray makes a distinction between engineering and the natural sciences (on the one hand) and the humanities and social sciences (on the other). What difference does he identify? Why is this difference important to his argument?
Murray claims that too many people are going to four-year colleges. What cause-and-effect arguments does he use to support this claim? How do these arguments support his position on the issue?
More than once in his essay, Murray notes that the “intellectually unqualified” probably do not want to attend a four-year college, and he implies that if given the chance, they would choose not to. Do you think this is true? Do you believe Murray’s emphasis on personal choice strengthens his argument? Explain.
According to Murray, more people should go to vocational schools. What advantages does he see for those who choose careers in trades and crafts?
PHARINET IS COLLEGE FOR EVERYONE? “You won’t get anywhere without your education.” We hear this refrain from the time we are in elementary school. This may be true, but is college for everyone? More and more individuals are enrolling in two- and four-year postsecondary schools, but why? Often, a desire for learning is not what 1
There is no doubt that education is important. There is also no doubt that every person has the right to an education. However, not every person should attend college. There are too many students enrolled in school who simply don’t belong there. Though drop-out rates vary, it is estimated that in the U.S., approximately 50 percent of students who begin college never graduate. There exist students who are not yet ready for the academic and financial challenges of college. There exist students who do not have the desire for college or learning. Some students may be better suited for a different type of education, if any.2
The student who is not yet ready for the academic and financial challenges of college is the most common. While the cost of college can be offset by grants, scholarships, and work-study programs, too many students find themselves in desperate financial situations by the end of their first semester. The cost of books can run several hundred dollars per semester. There are living expenses that students may not have planned for, including the cost of food, rent, gasoline, spending money, and supplies other than books. Students find themselves working full-time jobs while attending school full-time, and their minds, bodies, and grades end up suffering. While it may take a while longer to graduate, many students who find themselves in a position where they must work may do better to drop themselves to part-time student status, taking fewer classes. This lowers the cost of education each semester (though requires a longer-term commitment) and increases the chances of classroom success. There is more time to dedicate to coursework without overloading and overscheduling. Perhaps, certain individuals should consider a different life choice, as the long-term responsibility of repaying student loans can be overwhelming. However, the best financial planning in the world will not prepare a student for the academic challenges that await them.3
Believe it or not, there are students who cannot read [but who are] attending college. While this is an extreme case, it is symptomatic of the problems with the idea that “college is for everyone.” If college is for everyone, why do we rely on SAT scores and high school transcripts? Why doesn’t every school have an open admissions policy? Quite simply, because not everyone should attend college. If individuals are unable to read, they benefit more from a literacy program than a college course. There are also plenty of literate students who are not up for the challenge. They may have graduated from a high school that did not expect much from them, academically. They may not have the maturity necessary to dedicate themselves to the 4
“C’s get degrees.” One of my own students said this to me when inquiring about his progress this semester. Unfortunately, this is an all too common mentality among college students. There is no real desire for learning. Students are “going through the motions” to earn their degrees, hoping to settle into a comfortable job that will pay them well because that “C degree” hangs on their wall. Motivating students to learn is the biggest challenge most educators face. While it may be possible to ignite a spark in some, most students who don’t wish to learn simply won’t learn. What good is there, then, in attending college? None. What happens when this type of student enters the workforce? Do they exhibit the same lack of motivation in their careers? If so, what type of value is actually attached to that degree?5
Once upon a time, college was a place you went when you wished to learn. Now, college is the place you go when you want to get a good job, or appease your parents, or because you are “finding yourself.” While admissions representatives and administration share some of the blame (college is a business, after all), it is important to examine other reasons why students who don’t belong in college end up there anyway. Students and parents need to examine their options. Is it really going to benefit you (or your child) to attend college? What other options exist? Is a trade school the best option? Perhaps allowing yourself to take a year or two to carefully consider who you are and what you want will save you time and money, and better prepare you should you decide to attend college. Society, too, plays a part in pushing students into college classrooms. We need to start distinguishing between the right to an education, and the benefit of an education. College does not benefit everyone. Not everyone should attend college. It is OK to say this! It is OK to believe this! You are not putting anyone down by saying these things. You may be doing them a favor by letting them know that it is OK not to attend college. Higher education is not the key to happiness and success for every person.6
Many people have found happiness in careers that do not require a college education. If we continue to tell everyone to acquire a college degree, we lessen the pool of people who will do the jobs that keep our world running smoothly. There are jobs that do not require a college education. Some work can be learned on the job or from a trade school. We need fork lift drivers, factory workers, sales clerks, and cashiers. What would we do without tractor-trailer drivers, mail carriers, and construction workers? Refuse to accept the political correctness that says all of our 7
READING ARGUMENTS
In her second paragraph, the writer claims that there is “no doubt that every person has the right to an education” but also asserts that “not every person should attend college.” Why is this distinction important to her argument? Is it in any sense a contradiction?
In her conclusion, the writer advises, “Refuse to accept the political correctness that says all of our citizens should receive a higher education.” Do you agree that “college for everyone” has its roots in “political correctness”?
According to the writer, what is the biggest challenge that educators face?
AT ISSUE: Should Every American Go to College?
In paragraph 5 of his essay, Hoover cites a Pew Research Survey that asked college graduates about the main purpose of college: “Forty-seven percent said ‘to teach knowledge and skills that can be used in the workplace,’ 39 percent said ‘to help an individual grow personally and intellectually,’ and 12 percent said ‘both equally.’” How would you answer this question about the main purpose of college?
Murray bases his argument on the IQ, or “intelligence distribution” (para. 1), among the general population. What are the strengths and weaknesses of his focus on IQ?
Pharinet writes, “Once upon a time, college was a place you went when you wished to learn,” but now people go to “get a good job,” “appease” their parents, or find themselves (para. 6). Do you agree with her? If so, do you see this shift as a problem? If not, why not? Explain your reasoning.
WRITING ARGUMENTS: SHOULD EVERY AMERICAN GO TO COLLEGE?
After reading and thinking about the four essays in this casebook, do you think more people should be encouraged to attend college, or do you think some people should be discouraged from doing so? Do you see higher education as a “right” (and a necessity) for most, or even all citizens? Write an argumentative essay in which you answer these questions.
Pharinet says, “Motivating students to learn is the biggest challenge most educators face” (para. 5). Based on your own observations, what is the biggest challenge—or challenges—that most students face as they make their way through a postsecondary education?
AT ISSUE: Should Every American Go to College?